Identification and Characterisation of a Myxoma Virus Detected in the Italian Hare (Lepus corsicanus).

Myxoma virus (MYXV) is a Leporipoxvirus (genus) belonging to the family Poxviridae; it is characterised by a genome of approximately 161 kb dsDNA encoding for several proteins that play an essential role in both host spectrum determination and immunomodulation. The healthy reservoir of the virus is Sylvilagus spp. At the same time, in wild and domestic European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), MYXV is the etiologic agent of myxomatosis, a disease with an extremely high mortality rate. In 2014, an interspecies jump of MYXV was reported in Lepus europaeus in the UK. In 2018, myxomatosis induced by a new recombinant strain called MYXV-To was identified during a large outbreak in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain. Here, we describe the case of myxomatosis in another hare species: an adult male Italian hare (Lepus corsicanus) found dead in 2018 in Sicily with lesions suggestive of myxomatosis and treponema infection. Laboratory tests, e.g., end-point PCR and negative staining electron microscopy, confirmed the presence of both pathogens. MYXV was then isolated from tissue samples in permissive cells and sequenced using NGS technology. Main genomic differences concerning known MYXV strains are discussed.

Factors affecting populations of the endemic Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) after the first myxomatosis outbreaks in Central Spain.

The Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) is an endemic species distributed in Spain and Portugal. Myxomatosis outbreaks affecting this species were detected in 2018 in Central and Southern Spain, spreading afterward. Aiming to evaluate factors affecting the status of hare population after the arrival of myxomatosis, we conducted 108 nocturnal hare counts in Central Spain during two study periods (winter/spring and summer/autumn) in 54 different hunting grounds, covering 1071 km and observing 884 individuals. The mean density in winter/spring was 7.66 hares/100 ha, (range 6.14-9.54/100 ha), while in summer/autumn, it was 3.4 hares/100 ha (range 2.6-4.4/100 ha). Densities of hares were not affected by the dominant habitat and the presence/absence of myxomatosis outbreaks. Hares were more abundant at hunting grounds at a higher altitude and in those conducting targeted management, while detection of myxomatosis was related to lower altitude and higher levels of game management. A MaxEnt model used to generate a risk map for myxomatosis occurrence showed that the temperature annual range was the most important predictor, which suggests that environmental factors affecting myxomatosis vectors (mosquitoes, fleas, and ticks) could play a key role in disease transmission. As myxomatosis in hares is becoming endemic, hare densities may be improved by game management and the monitoring and surveillance of this emerging disease. These surveillance programs could be the basis of effective collaborations between hunters, researchers, and environmental managers.

Divergent Evolutionary Pathways of Myxoma Virus in Australia: Virulence Phenotypes in Susceptible and Partially Resistant Rabbits Indicate Possible Selection for Transmissibility.

To characterize the ongoing evolution of myxoma virus in Australian rabbits, we used experimental infections of laboratory rabbits to determine the virulence and disease phenotypes of recent virus isolates. The viruses, collected between 2012 and 2015, fell into three lineages, one of which, lineage c, experienced a punctuated increase in evolutionary rate. All viruses were capable of causing acute death with aspects of neutropenic septicemia, characterized by minimal signs of myxomatosis, the occurrence of pulmonary edema and bacteria invasions throughout internal organs, but with no inflammatory response. For the viruses of highest virulence all rabbits usually died at this point. In more attenuated viruses, some rabbits died acutely, while others developed an amyxomatous phenotype. Rabbits that survived for longer periods developed greatly swollen cutaneous tissues with very high virus titers. This was particularly true of lineage c viruses. Unexpectedly, we identified a line of laboratory rabbits with some innate resistance to myxomatosis and used these in direct comparisons with the fully susceptible rabbit line. Importantly, the same disease phenotype occurred in both susceptible and resistant rabbits, although virulence was shifted toward more attenuated grades in resistant animals. We propose that selection against inflammation at cutaneous sites prolongs virus replication and enhances transmission, leading to the amyxomatous phenotype. In some virus backgrounds this creates an immunosuppressive state that predisposes to high virulence and acute death. The alterations in disease pathogenesis, particularly the overwhelming bacterial invasions that characterize the modern viruses, suggest that their virulence grades are not directly comparable with earlier studies. IMPORTANCE The evolution of the myxoma virus (MYXV) following its release as a biological control for European rabbits in Australia is the textbook example of the coevolution of virus virulence and host resistance. However, most of our knowledge of MYXV evolution only covers the first few decades of its spread in Australia and often with little direct connection between how changes in virus phenotype relate to those in the underlying virus genotype. By conducting detailed experimental infections of recent isolates of MYXV in different lines of laboratory rabbits, we examined the ongoing evolution of MYXV disease phenotypes. Our results reveal a wide range of phenotypes, including an amyxomatous type, as well as the impact of invasive bacteria, that in part depended on the level of rabbit host resistance. These results provide a unique insight into the complex virus and host factors that combine to shape disease phenotype and viral evolution.

Retrospective serological and molecular survey of myxoma or antigenically related virus in the Iberian hare, Lepus granatensis.

The 2018 outbreak of myxomatosis in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) has been hypothesized to originate from a species jump of the rabbit-associated myxoma virus (MYXV), after natural recombination with an unknown poxvirus. Iberian hares were long considered resistant to myxomatosis as no prior outbreaks were reported. To provide insights into the emergence of this recombinant virus (ha-MYXV), we investigated serum samples from 451 Iberian hares collected over two time periods almost two decades apart, 1994-1999 and 2017-2019 for the presence of antibodies and MYXV-DNA. First, we screened all serum samples using a rabbit commercial indirect ELISA (iELISA) and then tested a subset of these samples in parallel using indirect immunofluorescence test (IFT), competitive ELISA (cELISA) and qPCR targeting M000.5L/R gene conserved in MYXV and ha-MYXV. The cut-off of iELISA relative index 10 = 6.1 was selected from a semiparametric finite mixture analysis aiming to minimize the probability of false positive results. Overall, MYXV related-antibodies were detected in 57 hares (12.6%) including 38 apparently healthy hares (n = 10, sampled in 1994-1999, none MYXV-DNA positive, and n = 28 sampled in 2017-2019 of which four were also ha-MYXV-DNA positive) and 19 found-dead and ha-MYXV-DNA-positive sampled in 2018-2019. Interestingly, four seronegative hares sampled in 1997 were MYXV-DNA positive by qPCR, the result being confirmed by sequencing of three of them. For the Iberian hares hunted or live trapped (both apparently health), seroprevalence was significantly higher in 2017-2019 (13.0%, CI95% 9.2-18.2%) than in 1994-1999 (5.4%, CI95% 3.0-9.6%) (p = .009). Within the second period, seroprevalence was significantly higher in 2019 compared to 2017 (24.7 vs 1.7% considering all the sample, p = .007), and lower during the winter than the autumn (p < .001). While our molecular and serological results show that Iberian hares have been in contact with MYXV or an antigenically similar virus at least since 1996, they also show an increase in seroprevalence in 2018-2019. The remote contact with MYXV may have occurred with strains that circulated in rabbits, or with unnoticed strains already circulating in Iberian hare populations. This work strongly suggests the infection of Iberian hares with MYXV or an antigenically related virus, at least 20 years before the severe virus outbreaks were registered in 2018.

Multi-event capture-recapture models estimate the diagnostic performance of serological tests for myxoma and rabbit haemorrhagic disease viruses in the absence of reference samples.

Estimation of the diagnostic performance of serological tests often relies on another test assumed as a reference or on samples of known infection status, yet both are seldom available for emerging pathogens in wildlife. Longitudinal disease serological data can be analysed through multi-event capture-mark-recapture (MECMR) models accounting for the uncertainty in state assignment, allowing us to estimate epidemiological parameters such as incidence and mortality. We hypothesized that by estimating the uncertainty in state assignment, MECMR models estimate the diagnostic performance of serological tests for rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) and myxoma virus (MYXV). We evaluated this hypothesis on longitudinal serological data of three tests of RHDV and one test of MYXV in two populations of the European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus). First, we selected the optimal cut-off threshold for each test using finite mixture models, a reference method not relying on reference tests or samples. Second, we used MECMR models to compare the diagnostic sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) of the three tests for RHDV. Third, we compared the estimates of diagnostic performance by MECMR and finite mixture models across a range of cut-off values. The MECMR models showed that the RHDV test employing GI.2 antigens (Se: 100%) outperformed two tests employing GI.1 antigens (Se: 21.7% ± 8.6% and 8.7% ± 5.9%). At their selected cut-offs (2.0 for RHDV GI.2 and 2.4 for MYXV), the estimates of Se and Sp were concordant between the MECMR and finite mixture models. Over the duration of the study (May 2018 to September 2020), the monthly survival of European rabbits seropositive for MYXV was significantly higher than that of seronegative rabbits (82.7% ± 4.9% versus 61.5% ± 12.7%) at the non-fenced site. We conclude that MECMR models can reliably estimate the diagnostic performance of serological tests for RHDV and MYXV in European rabbits. This conclusion could extend to other diagnostic tests and host-pathogen systems. Longitudinal disease surveillance data analysed through MECMR models allow the validation of diagnostic tests for emerging pathogens in novel host species while simultaneously estimating epidemiological parameters.

The Dynamics of Lepus granatensis and Oryctolagus cuniculus in a Mediterranean Agrarian Area: Are Hares Segregating from Rabbit Habitats after Disease Impact?

The genera Oryctolagus and Lepus (order Lagomorpha) are essential elements in the trophic chain in the Iberian Peninsula, being the main prey of many predators, including some highly endangered predators such as the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Myxomatosis, a disease producing tumorations in conjunctive tissues, and produced by the Myxoma Virus, has caused mass mortalities in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) for decades. Recently, the virus has jumped interspecifically from rabbits to hares, and this has created a depletion in hare populations, generating great concern. We analyzed the population dynamics and distribution of both lagomorph species in a Mediterranean agricultural area of the south of Spain since the 1990s with a combination of systematic and non-systematic data. The appearance of the outbreak in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatenis) in 2018 enabled us to undertake an opportunistic analysis of its effects on the spatial structure and assemblages, as well as on the niches of both species using PCA analyses and ordination techniques. Analysis of the mortality effect on daily and seasonal cycles was also conducted, and relations with the temporal dimension was tested using generalized lineal models (GLMs). In our results, in addition to population and temporal patterns, we could observe a restructuring in hare distribution after the mortality event, highlighting that prior to the outbreak, rabbit and hare populations were spatially differentiated, although with some overlaps and niche similarities. However, since the outbreak, hare populations have been excluded from rabbit areas, suggesting that in the absence of rabbits, the virus has more difficulties to infect hares. We also provide an overview of the effect of this population depletion on the ecological and socio-economic dimension of this region, pointing out the importance of this situation for the area.

Co-infection by classic MYXV and ha-MYXV in Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) and European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus).

Myxomatosis is an emergent disease in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis). In this species, the disease is caused by a natural recombinant virus (ha-myxoma virus [MYXV]) identified for the first time in 2018 and has since been responsible for a large number of outbreaks in Spain and Portugal. The ha-MYXV, which harbours a 2.8 Kb insert-disrupting gene M009L, can also infect and cause disease in wild and domestic rabbits, despite being less frequently identified in rabbits. During the laboratory investigations of wild leporids found dead in Portugal carried out within the scope of a Nacional Surveillance Plan (Dispatch 4757/17, MAFDR), co-infection events by classic (MYXV) and naturally recombinant (ha-MYXV) strains were detected in both one Iberian hare and one European wild rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus). These two cases were initially detected by a multiplex qPCR detection of MYXV and ha-MYXV and subsequently confirmed by conventional PCR and sequencing of the M009L gene, which contains an ha-MYXV-specific insertion. To our knowledge, this is the first documented report of co-infection by classic MYXV and ha-MYXV strains either in Iberian hare or in European wild rabbit. It is also the first report of infection of an Iberian hare by a classic MYXV strain. These findings highlight the continuous evolution of the MYXV and the frequent host range changes that justify the nonstop monitoring of the sanitary condition of wild Leporidae populations in the Iberian Peninsula.

Evaluation of Commercial Myxomatosis Vaccines against Recombinant Myxoma Virus (ha-MYXV) in Iberian Hare and Wild Rabbit.

The recent emergence of a new myxoma virus capable of causing disease in the Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) has resulted in numerous outbreaks with high mortality leading to the reduction, or even the disappearance, of many local populations of this wild species in the Iberian Peninsula. Currently, the available vaccines that prevent myxomatosis in domestic rabbits caused by classic strains of myxoma virus have not been assessed for use in Iberian hares. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of commercial rabbit vaccines in Iberian hares and wild rabbits against the natural recombinant myxoma virus (ha-MYXV), bearing in mind its application in specific scenarios where capture is possible, such as genetic reserves. The study used a limited number of animals (pilot study), 15 Iberian hares and 10 wild rabbits. Hares were vaccinated with Mixohipra-FSA vaccine (Hipra) and Mixohipra-H vaccine (Hipra) using two different doses, and rabbits were vaccinated with the Mixohipra-H vaccine or the Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS (MSD Animal Health) using the recommended doses for domestic rabbits. After the vaccination trials, the animals were challenged with a wild type strain of ha-MYXV. The results showed that no protection to ha-MYXV challenge was afforded when a commercial dose of Mixohipra-FSA or Mixohipra-H vaccine was used in hares. However, the application of a higher dose of Mixohipra-FSA vaccine may induce protection and could possibly be used to counteract the accelerated decrease of wild hare populations due to ha-MYXV emergence. The two commercial vaccines (Mixohipra-H and Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS) tested in wild rabbits were fully protective against ha-MYXV infection. This knowledge gives more insights into ha-MYXV management in hares and rabbits and emphasises the importance of developing a vaccine capable of protecting wild populations of Iberian hare and wild rabbit towards MYXV and ha-MYXV strains.

O coelho é a saúva: a proposta brasileira e o uso do vírus do mixoma (MYXV) contra a praga de coelhos na Austrália, 1896-1952 / Rabbits and leaf-cutting ants: the Brazilian plan to use the myxoma virus (MYXV) against rabbit plagues in Australia, 1896-1952

Resumo O artigo analisa a singularidade dos processos históricos, científicos e políticos que vão da descoberta da doença que passou a ser conhecida como mixomatose infecciosa, causada pelo vírus do mixoma (MYXV), à sua aplicação no controle de uma praga de coelhos na Austrália. A narrativa segue especialmente as pesquisas de Henrique de Beaurepaire Aragão, pesquisador do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, e posteriormente os esforços da cientista Jean Macnamara para promover pesquisas e implementar o MYXV na Austrália. Foram consultadas notas de pesquisa de cientistas, documentos oficiais que registraram o desenvolvimento dos experimentos, bem como periódicos. Nesse processo, foi considerado o desenvolvimento histórico do campo de estudos da virologia e controle biológico.

Abstract This article analyzes the singularity of historical, scientific, and political processes from the discovery of the disease caused by the myxoma virus (MYXV) that came to be known as infectious myxomatosis to the application of this virus against a plague of rabbits in Australia. This narrative focuses on research by Henrique de Beaurepaire Aragão, a researcher at the Oswaldo Cruz Institute, and later efforts by the scientist Jean Macnamara to promote studies and implement MYXV in Australia. The scientists' research notes were consulted, along with official documents recording the experiments and periodicals. In this process, the historical development of virology and biological controls as a field of study was also considered.

Recombinant myxoma virus infection associated with high mortality in rabbit farming (Oryctolagus cuniculus).

Myxomatosis is an emergent disease in the Iberian hare, having been considered a rabbit disease for decades. Genome sequencing of the strains obtained from Iberian hares with myxomatosis showed these to be distinct from the classical ones that circulated in rabbits since the virus introduction in Europe, in 1952. The main genomic difference in this natural recombinant hare myxoma virus (ha-MYXV) is the presence of an additional 2.8 kb region disrupting the M009L gene and adding a set of genes homologous to the myxoma virus (MYXV) genes M060R, M061R, M064R, M065R and M066R originated in Poxviruses. After the emergence of this recombinant virus (ha-MYXV) in hares, in the summer of 2019, the ha-MYXV was not detected in rabbit surveys, suggesting an apparent species segregation with the MYXV classic strains persistently circulating in rabbits. Recently, a group of six unvaccinated European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus cuniculus) from a backyard rabbitry in South Portugal developed signs of myxomatosis (anorexia, dyspnoea, oedema of eyelids, head, ears, external genitals and anus, and skin myxomas in the base of the ears). Five of them died within 24-48 hr of symptom onset. Molecular analysis revealed that only the recombinant MYXV was present. This is the first documented report of a recombinant hare myxoma virus in farm rabbits associated with high mortality, which increases the concern for the future of both the Iberian hare and wild rabbits and questions the safety of the rabbit industry. This highlights the urgent need to evaluate the efficacy of available vaccines against this new MYXV.

Viruses for Landscape-Scale Therapy: Biological Control of Rabbits in Australia.

Viral diseases, whether of animals or humans, are normally considered as problems to be managed. However, in Australia, two viruses have been used as landscape-scale therapeutics to control European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), the preeminent invasive vertebrate pest species. Rabbits have caused major environmental and agricultural losses and contributed to extinction of native species. It was not until the introduction of Myxoma virus that effective control of this pest was obtained at a continental scale. Subsequent coevolution of rabbit and virus saw a gradual reduction in the effectiveness of biological control that was partially ameliorated by the introduction of the European rabbit flea to act as an additional vector for the virus. In 1995, a completely different virus, Rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV), escaped from testing and spread through the Australian rabbit population and again significantly reduced rabbit numbers and environmental impacts. The evolutionary pressures on this virus appear to be producing quite different outcomes to those that occurred with myxoma virus and the emergence and invasion of a novel genotype of RHDV in 2014 have further augmented control. Molecular studies on myxoma virus have demonstrated multiple proteins that manipulate the host innate and adaptive immune response; however the molecular basis of virus attenuation and reversion to virulence are not yet understood.

Monitoring of emerging myxoma virus epidemics in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain, 2018-2020.

Myxomatosis is an infectious disease caused by the myxoma virus (MYXV), which has very high mortality rates in European wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus). While sporadic cases of myxomatosis have also been reported in some hare species, these lagomorphs are considered to have a low susceptibility to MYXV infection. In the present study, we describe the spatiotemporal evolution and main epidemiological findings of novel hare MYXV (ha-MYXV or MYXV-Tol) epidemics in Iberian hares (Lepus granatensis) in Spain. In the period 2018-2020, a total of 487 hares from 372 affected areas were confirmed to be MYXV-infected by PCR. ha-MYXV outbreaks were detected in most of the Spanish regions where the Iberian hare is present. The spatial distribution was not homogeneous, with most outbreaks concentrated in the southern and central parts of Spain. Consecutive outbreaks reported in the last two years suggest endemic circulation in Spain of this emerging virus. A retrospective study carried out just after the first epidemic period (2018-2019) revealed that the virus could have been circulating since June 2018. The number of outbreaks started to rise in July, peaked during the first half of August and October and then decreased sharply until January 2019. The apparent mean mortality rate was 55.4% (median: 70%). The results indicated high susceptibility of the Iberian hare to ha-MYXV infection, but apparent resistance in the sympatric hare species present in Spain and less infectivity in European rabbits. The novel ha-MYXV has had significant consequences on the health status of Iberian hare populations in Spain, which is of animal health and conservation concern. The present study contributes to a better understanding of ha-MYXV emergence and will provide valuable information for the development of control strategies. Further research is warranted to assess the impact of this emerging virus on wild lagomorph populations and to elucidate its ecological implications for Iberian Mediterranean ecosystems.

Detection of recombinant Hare Myxoma Virus in wild rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus algirus).

In late 2018, an epidemic myxomatosis outbreak emerged on the Iberian Peninsula leading to high mortality in Iberian hare populations. A recombinant Myxoma virus (strains MYXV-Tol and ha-MYXV) was rapidly identified, harbouring a 2.8 kbp insertion containing evolved duplicates of M060L, M061L, M064L, and M065L genes from myxoma virus (MYXV) or other Poxviruses. Since 2017, 1616 rabbits and 125 hares were tested by a qPCR directed to M000.5L/R gene, conserved in MYXV and MYXV-Tol/ha-MYXV strains. A subset of the positive samples (20%) from both species was tested for the insert with MYXV being detected in rabbits and the recombinant MYXV in hares. Recently, three wild rabbits were found dead South of mainland Portugal, showing skin oedema and pulmonary lesions that tested positive for the 2.8 kbp insert. Sequencing analysis showed 100% similarity with the insert sequences described in Iberian hares from Spain. Viral particles were observed in the lungs and eyelids of rabbits by electron microscopy, and isolation in RK13 cells attested virus infectivity. Despite that the analysis of complete genomes may predict the recombinant MYXV strains' ability to infect rabbit, routine analyses showed species segregation for the circulation of MYXV and recombinant MYXV in wild rabbit and in Iberian hares, respectively. This study demonstrates, however, that recombinant MYXV can effectively infect and cause myxomatosis in wild rabbits and domestic rabbits, raising serious concerns for the future of the Iberian wild leporids while emphasises the need for the continuous monitoring of MYXV and recombinant MYXV in both species.

Novel Trivalent Vectored Vaccine for Control of Myxomatosis and Disease Caused by Classical and a New Genotype of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus.

Myxoma virus (MV) and rabbit haemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) are the major causes of lethal viral diseases in the European rabbit. In 2010, a new RHDV genotype (RHDV2) emerged in the field that had limited cross-protection with the classical RHDV (RHDV1). For optimal protection of rabbits and preventing spread of disease, a vaccine providing protection against all three key viruses would be ideal. Therefore, a novel trivalent myxoma vectored RHDV vaccine (Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS) was developed similar to the existing bivalent myxoma vectored RHDV vaccine Nobivac Myxo-RHD. The new vaccine contains the Myxo-RHDV1 strain already included in Nobivac Myxo-RHD and a similarly produced Myxo-RHDV2 strain. This paper describes several key safety and efficacy studies conducted for European licensing purposes. Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS showed to be safe for use in rabbits from five weeks of age onwards, including pregnant rabbits, and did not spread from vaccinated rabbits to in-contact controls. Furthermore, protection to RHDV1 and RHDV2 was demonstrated by challenge, while the serological response to MV was similar to that after vaccination with Nobivac Myxo-RHD. Therefore, routine vaccination with Nobivac Myxo-RHD PLUS can prevent the kept rabbit population from these major viral diseases.

Seasonality and risk factors for myxomatosis in pet rabbits in Great Britain.

Myxomatosis is a highly contagious, frequently fatal viral disease affecting both wild and domesticated European rabbits across many areas of the world. Here we used electronic health records (EHRs) collected from pet rabbits attending a sentinel voluntary network of 191 veterinary practices across Great Britain (GB) between March 2014 and June 2019 to identify new features of this disease's epidemiology. From a total of 89,408 rabbit consultations, text mining verified by domain experts identified 207 (0.23 %) cases where myxomatosis was the only differential diagnosis recorded by the attending practitioner. Cases occurred in all months but February and were distributed across the country. Consistent with studies in wild rabbits, the majority of cases occurred between August and November. However, there was also evidence for considerable variation between years. A nested case control study identified important risk factors for myxomatosis within this pet animal population including season, sex, age, vaccination status and distance to likely wild rabbit habitats. Female entire rabbits were twice as likely to be a case (odds ratio (OR) 1.98, 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.26-3.13, p = 0.003), suggesting a novel role for behaviour in driving transmission from wild to domesticated rabbits. Vaccination had the largest protective effect with vaccinated rabbits being 8.3 times less likely to be a case than unvaccinated rabbits (OR = 0.12, 95 % CI 0.06-0.21, p = <0.001).

Myxomatosis and Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease: A 30-Year Study of the Occurrence on Commercial Farms in Spain.

In this retrospective study, we describe the relative occurrence of clinical myxomatosis, and rabbit haemorrhagic disease (RHD), on 1714 commercial farms visited in Spain, between 1988 and 2018. We determined the annual prevalence based on 817 visits to 394 farms affected by myxomatosis. Myxomatosis was more prevalent from August to March, being lowest in June (3%) and highest in September (8.9%). With regard to RHD, we assessed 253 visits to 156 affected farms. We analyzed mean annual and monthly incidence. Two important RHD epidemics occurred; the first in 1988-1989 due to RHDV GI.1 (also known as RHDV), and the second from 2011 to 2013 due to RHDV GI.2 (RHDV2 or RHDVb). These epidemics occurred at times when effective vaccination had not been carried out. Relative monthly incidence in 2011-2018 was higher from April to August (p < 0.001). The results we obtained from 1404 necropsies on 102 farms did not clearly relate serosanguinous nasal discharge in rabbits with disease caused by GI.2 infection. We also assessed vaccination schedules used on 200 doe farms visited from the end of 2014 to 2018; 95.5% vaccinated against myxomatosis and 97.5% against RHD. Both diseases remain prevalent; however, effective vaccination has produced a steady decline in myxomatosis and RHDV GI.1 and GI.2 on-farm detection. The maintenance of high hygienic standards will be needed to continue and improve this control. However, further studies are required to investigate the causes of sustained virus presence and vaccine breaks.

Nowhere to run, rabbit: the cold-war calculus of disease ecology.

During the cold war, Frank Fenner (protégé of Macfarlane Burnet and René Dubos) and Francis Ratcliffe (associate of A. J. Nicholson and student of Charles Elton) studied mathematically the coevolution of host resistance and parasite virulence when myxomatosis was unleashed on Australia's rabbit population. Later, Robert May called Fenner the "real hero" of disease ecology for his mathematical modeling of the epidemic. While Ratcliffe came from a tradition of animal ecology, Fenner developed an ecological orientation in World War II through his work on malaria control (with Ratcliffe and Ian Mackerras, among others)-that is, through studies of tropical medicine. This makes Fenner at least a partial exception to other senior disease ecologists in the region, most of whom learned their ecology from examining responses to agricultural challenges and animal husbandry problems in settler colonial society. Here I consider the local ecologies of knowledge in southeastern Australia during this period, and describe the particular cold-war intellectual niche that Fenner and Ratcliffe inhabited.

Effects of myxoma virus and rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus on the physiological condition of wild European rabbits: Is blood biochemistry a useful monitoring tool?

Myxomatosis and rabbit hemorrhagic disease (RHD) are the major viral diseases that affect the wild European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus). These diseases arrived in Europe within the last decades and have caused wild rabbit populations to decline dramatically. Both viruses are currently considered to be endemic in the Iberian Peninsula; periodic outbreaks that strongly impact wild populations regularly occur. Myxoma virus (MV) and rabbit hemorrhagic disease virus (RHDV) alter the physiology of infected rabbits, resulting in physical deterioration. Consequently, the persistence and viability of natural populations are affected. The main goal of our study was to determine if blood biochemistry is correlated with serostatus in wild European rabbits. We carried out seven live-trapping sessions in three wild rabbit populations over a two-year period. Blood samples were collected to measure anti-MV and anti-RHDV antibody concentrations and to measure biochemical parameters related to organ function, protein metabolism, and nutritional status. Overall, we found no significant relationships between rabbit serostatus and biochemistry. Our main result was that rabbits that were seropositive for both MV and RHDV had low gamma glutamyltransferase concentrations. Given the robustness of our analyses, the lack of significant relationships may indicate that the biochemical parameters measured are poor proxies for serostatus. Another explanation is that wild rabbits might be producing attenuated physiological responses to these viruses because the latter are now enzootic in the study area.

Vaccine breaks: Outbreaks of myxomatosis on Spanish commercial rabbit farms.

Despite the success of vaccination against myxoma virus, myxomatosis remains a problem on rabbit farms throughout Spain and Europe. In this study we set out to evaluate possible causes of myxoma virus (MYXV) vaccine failures addressing key issues with regard to pathogen, vaccine and vaccination strategies. This was done by genetically characterising MYXV field isolates from farm outbreaks, selecting a representative strain for which to assay its virulence and measuring the protective capability of a commercial vaccine against this strain. Finally, we compare methods (route) of vaccine administration under farm conditions and evaluate immune response in vaccinated rabbits. The data presented here show that the vaccine tested is capable of eliciting protection in rabbits that show high levels of seroconversion. However, the number of animals failing to seroconvert following subcutaneous vaccination may leave a large number of rabbits unprotected following vaccine administration. Successful vaccination requires the strict implication of workable, planned, on farm programs. Following this, analysis to confirm seroconversion rates may be advisable. Factors such as the wild rabbit reservoir, control of biting insects and good hygienic practices must be taken into consideration to prevent vaccine failures from occurring.

An invasive non-native mammal population conserves genetic diversity lost from its native range.

Invasive, non-native species are one of the major causes of global biodiversity loss. Although they are, by definition, successful in their non-native range, their populations generally show major reductions in their genetic diversity during the demographic bottleneck they experience during colonization. By investigating the mitochondrial genetic diversity of an invasive non-native species, the stoat Mustela erminea, in New Zealand and comparing it to diversity in the species' native range in Great Britain, we reveal the opposite effect. We demonstrate that the New Zealand stoat population contains four mitochondrial haplotypes that have not been found in the native range. Stoats in Britain rely heavily on introduced rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus as their primary prey and were introduced to New Zealand in a misguided attempt at biological control of rabbits, which had also been introduced there. While invasive stoats have since decimated the New Zealand avifauna, native stoat populations were themselves decimated by the introduction to Britain of Myxoma virus as a control measure for rabbits. We highlight the irony that while introduced species (rabbits) and subsequent biocontrol (myxomatosis) have caused population crashes of native stoats, invasive stoats in New Zealand, which were also introduced for biological control, now contain more genetic haplotypes than their most likely native source.